Effect of goji berry incorporation on the texture, physicochemical, and sensory properties of wheat bread (2024)

This study investigated the effect of goji berry incorporation at levels of 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30% ww⁻¹ on the textural, physicochemical, and sensory properties of wheat bread.

2.1. Sample procurement

For this experiment, ripened goji berry fruits (Lycium barbarum) cultivated in Iran were purchased in the form of dried fruit from an Iranian berry company (Mazandaran, Iran). Then the dried goji berry was grounded using an electric blender. The sieving process was done by passing them through two sieves with 50 and 40 mesh sizes. Soft wheat flour was procured at Roshan Company (Yazd, Iran), containing 13.95% ww⁻¹ moisture, 0.23% ww⁻¹ ash, and 10.93% ww⁻¹ protein. Other materials, such as fresh yeast, salt, sugar, and oil, were purchased from the local market of Yazd, Iran.

2.2. Method

The potential of wheat bread to deliver goji berries was investigated regarding technological characteristics (farinograph and rheological properties of dough, texture profile analysis, crumb/ crust color, and sensory evaluation). Goji berry bread samples were prepared according to the procedure described by Gamel etal.(²⁰¹⁵). The composite flour was prepared by replacing part of wheat flour with grounded goji berry (the moisture, ash, fat, protein, fiber, and carbohydrate were 6.9, 4.11, 3.75, 13.21, 24.81, and 402.31 g/100 g DW, respectively) at 6 levels (0, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30% ww⁻¹) as described in Table1. The quantity of water was determined using the Farinograph (Brabender, Germany), and breads were fermented with Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast as a starter.

2.3. Farinograph test

The mixing properties of composite flour were determined by the Brabender farinograph (Germany) using the method described in AACC Method 5421 (Kou etal.,²⁰¹⁹). The determined parameters from the curves plotted by the device were: water absorption (WA), dough development time (DDT), stability time (ST), dough degree of softening (DDS), consistency, and farinograph quality number (FQN). Values were expressed as the mean ± standard deviation.

2.4. Bread preparation

The dough preparation was done using soft wheat composite flour, in which goji berries were incorporated at 6 levels (0, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30% ww⁻¹). All ingredients were added on a flour‐dry basis. In this regard, 2.2% ww⁻¹ yeast, 0.5% ww⁻¹ sugar, 1% ww⁻¹ salt, 3% ww⁻¹ canola oil, and water (based on farinograph data) were mixed. Then, the mixture was kept inside the fermentation cabinet set at 29 ± 0.5°C for 4 h. A piece of sample (30 g) was kept for rheological parameter determination, and the other was used for baking. Afterward, the kneaded dough was placed in baking pans and baked in a convection oven (Model PFB‐2, Duke Manufacturing Company, St Louis, MO, USA) at 220°C until easily separated from the pan edges. The schematic diagram of wheat–goji berry composite bread preparation steps is declared in Figure1.

2.5. Rheological characteristic of wheat–goji berry composite dough

The rheological characteristics of wheat–goji berry composite dough were determined by the method described by Codină etal.(²⁰¹⁸). For this purpose, a Physica MCR 301 rotary rheometer (Austria, Anton Parr) equipped with a circular water temperature regulation system with a sensitivity of ±0.01 with a parallel plate measuring system and a gap width of 2 mm was used. Dough samples were prepared according to the optimum water absorption capacity determined by Farinograph. Dough samples rested for 30 min to allow relaxation and temperature stabilization before being placed between plates. To determine the linear viscoelastic region, frequency sweep tests were measured from 1 to 20 Hz at 20°C for all wheat–goji berry composite dough samples. For the temperature sweep test, samples were heated from 20 to 85°C at a heating rate of 4.74°C per min and a frequency of 1 Hz. Also, rheological parameters including storage modulus (G′), loss modulus (G″), and loss tangent (tan δ) were registered as follows:

2.6. Physicochemical characteristics of wheat–goji berry composite bread

2.7. Texture profile analysis

The textural characteristics of all wheat–goji berry composite bread were measured on the day of baking using a texture analyzer (TA20. KOOPA) (AAC, 2000). Textural characteristics, including hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, and chewiness, of bread samples were evaluated. Bread loaves were sliced from the middle into pieces of 20 × 20 × 25 mm. The bread samples were compressed to up to 50% of their original height through a 43‐mm cylindrical probe using a 5‐kg loading cell at a speed of 1 mm/s. The parameters were calculated using Texture Expert software for Windows (Guadarrama‐Lezama etal.,²⁰¹⁶).

2.8. Color analysis

The crust and crumb color of bread samples were evaluated using a spectrophotometer UV–Visible (Varian, Australia). The spectral attributes were based on the CIE system, lightness (L*), greenness/redness (a*), and blueness/yellowness (b*). The CIE whiteness index of each bread sample was calculated by the following equation (Zhu etal.,²⁰¹⁶):

2.9. Preliminarily sensory evaluation

The sensory characteristics of the loaves of bread were evaluated by 30 consumers aged between 20 and 50 years. Participants were recruited from the staff and students at Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran. Samples were given to the panelists (who were insensitive to gluten/wheat products) randomly. Six samples of bread (0, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30% ww⁻¹) and water (25°C) were provided to the panelists, and they were also requested to rinse their mouths with plain water between each sample tasting. Different sensory attributes of the product, namely, texture, flavor/taste, color, and overall acceptability, were evaluated by the panelists. The sensory scores of bread were recorded using the 9‐point hedonic scale (1 = dislike extremely; 2 = dislike very much; 3 = dislike moderately; 4 = dislike slightly; 5 = neither like nor dislike; 6 = like slightly; 7 = like moderately; 8 = like very much; 9 = like extremely) (Bora etal.,²⁰¹⁹).

2.10. Statistical analysis

In order to obtain the highest accuracy in the results, each test was performed in triplicate. Statistical analysis was carried out by one‐way ANOVA using SPSS V.25 software. Significant differences between mean values were determined by Tukey's test. Furthermore, non‐parametric tests were used for sensory evaluation (Kruskal–Wallis test). p values <0.05 were considered significant.

3.1. Farinograph test result

The unique properties of wheat flour in the formation of a viscoelastic network were influenced by the addition of other ingredients. Table2 shows the farinograph results of the wheat dough (control) and wheat–goji berry composite dough. Results showed that goji berry inclusion changed the mixing behavior of wheat dough on the basis of its level. Considering the water absorption index (WAI), a significant (p < 0.05) increase has been observed by goji berry inclusion from 66.41 ± 0.01 i to 68.44 ± 0.02 in the control and F₂ samples, respectively. However, an insignificant descending WAI was observed by increasing the quantity of goji berry inclusion between F₄, F₅, and control samples. Also, the lowest WAI (p < 0.05) was found at the F₆ formulation containing the highest goji berry powder content. It is shown that the amount of protein and fiber in fruit could change the WAI of flour by influencing the gelatinization process (Mohammadi etal.,²⁰²¹). Gluten protein has a higher water absorption rate compared to fibers (Struck etal.,²⁰¹⁸). However, the compliance role of fiber with protein in water absorption postpones the decrease in WAI in formulations containing goji berries up to 25% ww⁻¹, which is obvious at F₆, verifying the gluten dilution impacts (Shiri etal.,²⁰²¹).

Dough development time (DDT), as an indicator of the time required to form dough with suitable consistency, is prominently influenced by protein and fiber content in formulation (Liu etal.,²⁰²²). As depicted in Table2, the DDT amount change by goji berry powder inclusion was significant (p < 0.05). Despite the decrease observed by goji berry addition at 15% ww⁻¹, it has been increased again at the higher incorporation level, where the highest DDT content is observed in the F₅ sample with a value equal to 9.93 ± 0.01 min. It seems that increasing the amount of fruit‐based dietary fiber in dough samples reduces the hydration of wheat proteins and increases DDT (Struck etal.,²⁰¹⁸). As DDT is an indicator of the time required for dough development (Tamba‐Berehoiu etal.,²⁰¹⁷), it is preferred to be similar to control through fortified formula optimization (Jagelaviciute & Cizeikiene,²⁰²¹). In this regard, the closest content in composite dough is found at F₄, with an insignificant difference from the control (p ≥ 0.05), verifying the compensation of gluten dilution impacts with goji berry dietary fiber (Liu etal.,²⁰²²). The optimized stability time (ST), which displays dough stability and strength, is also found in F₄ containing goji berries at 20% ww⁻¹ (Kohajdová etal.,²⁰¹⁴).

Respecting dough degree of softening (DDS), an increase of about 300% has been found at 30% ww⁻¹ goji berry inclusion in composite dough. Although no particular trend has been found in this parameter, the lowest DDS in composite dough was found in F₄. The lowest DDS along with optimized ST at composite dough confirm the compensation role of dietary fiber on the gluten dilution role of gluten at composite dough. In general, a high degree of softening indicates a weak dough, in which most of the dough stabilizing bonds have been broken and caused water to leave the system (Iuga & Mironeasa,²⁰²⁰).

By using goji berry powder in composite dough, a reduction of about 70% is found at FQN of the F₃ sample containing 15% ww⁻¹ goji berry, which is induced by a decrease in ST and an increase in DDS of the sample. As FQN is an indicator of the quality of flour, it needs to be close to the control sample at fortified formulations, which is an indicator of the desirability of the formulation (Valková etal.,²⁰²⁰). Among composite doughs, F₄ sample was the closest sample in terms of FQN. Similar results were reported by Kim etal.(²⁰¹⁹) by adding grape seed powder to wheat flour.

3.2. Rheological characteristics

Frequency sweep and temperature sweep tests provide information about the effect of changes in formulation on the behavior of the dough during the process (Korus etal.,²⁰¹⁷). Tests were performed at a linear viscoelastic region, where the viscoelastic behavior of the materials is strain‐independent, in order to determine the maximum gelatinization temperature (Iuga etal. ²⁰²⁰). The viscoelastic characteristics of dough are monitored by two viscose and elastic moduli, which are assessed by complex modulus and damping factor parameters (Witczak etal.,²⁰¹⁷). Regarding the data obtained by the frequency sweep test, the storage modulus was greater than the loss modulus (G′ > G″) at all complex doughs. As depicted in Figure2, using goji berry powder in composite dough leads to an increase in both elastic and viscose moduli (with an enhanced increase in elastic modulus as demonstrated by a decreased damping factor), depending on the incorporation level. Therefore, using goji berries in composite dough formulations provides a gel‐like structure with more elastic behavior compared to viscose characteristics (Valková etal.,²⁰²⁰). However, this trend is found to be dependent on goji berry level, with an increasing trend up to F₃ and again decreasing. In other words, the impacts of gluten dilution will be more dominant in formulations containing more than 15% ww⁻¹ goji berries. Regarding complex modulus, among complex doughs, the behavior found in F₄ is more similar to that of the control sample. High‐quality dough needs to provide optimal complex modulus, as those with high complex modulus prevent gas bubble expansion and are characterized by excessive stiffness, and those with low complex modulus are poor enough to be unable to maintain gas bubbles (Shiri etal.,²⁰²¹).

Temperature sweep test indicate information about the changes of the complex modulus with temperature. These changes are owing to the effects of temperature on the moisture absorption rate (Figure2). Also, changes of elastic modulus is related to starch, dietary fiber, protein content, and its ratio (Struck etal.,²⁰¹⁸). It has been found that goji berry addition changes the moisture absorption rate and initial viscosity. The gelatinization temperature and the manner of elastic modulus would change over time. The viscosity at 20°C showed that the addition of goji berries had a high effect on the viscosity, and with the addition of goji berries, viscosity significantly increased. But with increasing temperature to 70°C, the viscosity of all systems reduced. After that, with an increase in temperature, viscosity increased due to the absorption of water. The absorption rate of water decreased with an increase in the content of goji berries owing to the reduction in the granola content of the systems. As demonstrated, the gelatinization temperature has been increased by the addition of goji berry in a dose‐dependent manner, increasing from 66°C in the control sample to about 90°C in the formulation containing 30% ww⁻¹ goji berry. As gelatinization occurs by water absorption of starch molecules, it seems that in the presence of goji berry fiber and its competition with starch molecules, the water absorption of starch and consequently its gelatinization will delay (Xu etal.,²⁰²¹).

3.3. Physicochemical characteristics

Moisture plays an important role in the formation of dough and the quality of bread texture. It depends on the components and structure of the formulation and is influenced by the absorption water layer, bound water layer, and free water layer (Liu etal.,²⁰²²). According to the results presented in Table3, the inclusion of goji berry powder significantly reduced the moisture content of composite bread samples compared to the control ones (p < 0.05), which is promoted by increasing the goji berry powder incorporation level. Considering both the water absorption and moisture content, they have changed in a similar way. In other words, the lowest and highest moisture content have been observed in samples with the lowest and highest water absorption content, respectively (F₆ and F₂). Moisture reduction of composite dough at high levels of goji berry inclusion is attributed to a reduction in the dehydration of dough structure as a result of the weakening of the gluten network (Ahmed etal.,²⁰¹³). Also, the lowest moisture content was observed in the sample containing 30% ww⁻¹ (F₆) with 31.69 ± 0.01% ww⁻¹. It seems that the decrease in moisture content is due to the amount of fiber in the fruit composition, which competes with starch molecules and reduces its dehydration. As can be seen from the results of the temperature sweep test, in the higher concentrations of goji berries, the gelatinization of the starch delays, and the gelatinization temperature eventually increases. These changes prevent the formation of a regular gel‐like structure and cause more water migration and less moisture content (Ragaee etal.,²⁰¹¹).

The specific volume is an index of the dough's ability to retain the carbon dioxide produced during the fermentation process and its ability to expand it during the baking process (Kou etal.,²⁰¹⁹). The specific volume depends on the quality and quantity of wheat flour constituents (such as protein, starch, dietary fiber, etc. content and ratio) and composite dough formulation (Bora etal.,²⁰¹⁹). Results indicated that despite a significant increase in the specific volume of bread samples by goji berry powder incorporation up to 20% ww⁻¹ (sample F₄) (p < 0.05), it decreased at higher incorporation levels (samples F₅ and F₆) (p < 0.05). Therefore, it was hypothesized that inhibitory impacts of dietary fiber in formulations containing high goji berry levels decrease the specific volume (Pathak etal.,²⁰¹⁶). With an increase in goji berry concentration, the moisture absorption and moisture content of the sample significantly decreased. The highest specific volume of bread samples was observed in the mixture with 20% ww⁻¹ of goji berry powder, which increased by about 10% compared to the control sample. Also, the water absorption was reduced in this sample, which led to moisture migration. The effect of adding goji berry powder on the specific volume of bread samples also depends on the amount of gluten protein dilution. This could be clarified by the fact that high substitution levels of bread samples with goji berry powder cause gluten dilution, affect optimal gluten matrix formation, and verify the formation of compact structures (Feili etal.,²⁰¹⁶).

The amount of ash content is an estimate of the mineral content in the food (Martínez & Gómez,²⁰¹⁷). Results indicated that goji berry addition enhanced the ash content according to its incorporation level, which is in accordance with Bora etal.'s(²⁰¹⁹) results.

3.4. Textural characteristics

The textural properties of composite breads in the presence of goji berry powder are shown in Figure3. According to the results, hardness of the samples ranged from 892.23 ± 0.37 to 2068.17 ± 0.03 g. Generally, the hardness of bread indicates its quality and depends on specific volume, dough hydration, and formulation components such as protein and fiber (sh*ttu etal.,²⁰¹⁴). It is clear that hardened bread can reduce consumer acceptance (Liu etal.,²⁰²²). Incorporation of goji berry powder at levels up to 20% ww⁻¹ (F₄) significantly decreased the hardness of composite breads (p < 0.05). Decreased hardness, along with a higher specific volume and lower moisture content, of bread samples seems to be induced by a higher water migration ratio, starch gelatinization, the presence of fiber, and an optimal fiber–protein ratio affect that water migration (Feili etal.,²⁰¹³). Based on the result, sample F₄ is considered optimal in terms of hardness, which is the same as the control sample.

Springiness (known as elasticity) is an indicator of the quality and freshness of bread and is expressed as the degree to which deformed breads return to their normal state after being pressed (Lauková etal.,²⁰¹⁷). Springiness was significantly decreased by adding goji berry powder (p < 0.05). The highest elasticity was reported in the control sample, which showed an insignificant difference with the sample containing 30% ww⁻¹ of goji berry powder (p ≥ 0.05). The high springiness in the control sample could be attributed to the dilution of the gluten structure in the substituted breads. The lower amount of gluten causes a lower ability to hold the gases, which causes a reduction in the springiness of composite breads (Amin etal.,²⁰¹⁹). The interaction between gelatinized starch and gluten causes the dough to be more elastic and can be effective in maintaining the spongy structure of bread after the baking process (Mildner‐Szkudlarz etal.,²⁰¹⁶). Results also indicated that at higher levels of goji berry powder, an increase in the amount of fiber and a decrease in the amount of protein in the final formulation will increase the gelatinization time and reduce the ability to hold gases. These changes would ultimately lead to a decrease in the elasticity of bread.

Cohesiveness as an indicator of bread quality (Kohajdová etal.,²⁰¹⁴) has a range of 0.45 ± 0.01–0.69 ± 0.01. High cohesiveness and elasticity for wheat bread is a desirable feature because it leads to less distribution of bread during chewing. In fact, low cohesiveness in bread is susceptible to rupture (Encina‐Zelada etal.,²⁰¹⁸). Results showed that, using goji berry powder up to 20% ww⁻¹ (F₄ sample) has insignificant impacts on the cohesiveness of samples (p ≥ 0.05). However, at a higher substitution level of goji berry powder, cohesiveness decreased, and an insignificant difference was also observed between samples F₅ and F₆ (p ≥ 0.05). The decrease in cohesiveness seems to be induced by gluten dilution impacts at higher incorporation levels of goji berries. Higher substitution levels of composite breads have a low ability to resist the bite force between the teeth before the bread structure breaks and are more likely to disintegrate during masticating. Chewiness shows the energy required to chew a solid food until it can be swallowed (Kowalczewski etal.,²⁰¹⁹) and considers the parameters of hardness, cohesiveness, and elasticity simultaneously. The chewiness of breads has increased with an increase in the amount of goji berry powder, in a trend similar to hardness. It was shown that among breads enriched with goji berry powder, the highest chewiness was found in F₆ samples. The correlation between chewiness and hardness was also found by Feili etal.(²⁰¹⁶). Overall, the addition of goji berry powder to the bread recipe, due to gluten dilution and dough's low ability to hold gas, led to the weakening of the gluten structure; as a result, the softness and springiness of composite bread were reduced and chewiness increased (Hameed etal.,²⁰²¹). A study by Feili etal.(²⁰¹⁶) showed a similar trend for breads containing fiber, in which the addition of fiber to the formulation increased the chewiness of the bread.

3.5. Color analysis

The effects of goji berry powder addition on composite bread color are presented in Table4. Bread color is an important quality parameter of bakery products, which, along with texture and taste, could have a significant impact on their acceptability. The color of the golden crust and the color of the white bread crumb are the factors affecting consumer acceptance (Guijarro‐fuertes etal.,²⁰¹⁹). During the processing of goji berry‐wheat composite bread, the reddish‐orange color of the fruit provides a red range of color to the dough and bread. Incorporation of goji berry powder in the formulation of wheat bread led to a decrease in L* (lightness), a* (greenness/redness), and b* (blueness/yellowness) of the bread crust. The control sample presented a lighter crust compared to goji berry‐enriched bread, and it became darker by increasing the substitution level of goji berry powder. Among the samples that contained goji berry powder, those with 10% ww⁻¹ goji berry powder (F₂) with values equal to 83.70 ± 0.30, 12.34 ± 0.01, and 24.13 ± 0.01 had the highest L*, a*, and b*, respectively. With an increase in goji berry level, all crust color parameters have decreased, with insignificant differences between samples F₃, F₄, F₅, and F₆ (p ≥ 0.05). As can be seen, the crust color is influenced by the Maillard reaction (Mohammadi etal.,²⁰²¹). According to the results, the incorporation of goji berry powder reduced the L* and a* together. However, L* reduction can be attributed to the accelerated Maillard reaction induced by enhanced substrate availability and the reddish color of goji berry powder (Eliášová etal.,²⁰²⁰). In fact, no certain reason existed for a* reduction despite the prevalence of goji berry color. Similar results were obtained by Guijarro‐fuertes etal.(²⁰¹⁹), in which the use of Andean blueberries in wheat bread reduced the lightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*) of the bread crust. Also, the WI crust changes showed that the use of goji berry powder increased the whiteness of bread crust and between samples F₃, F₄, F₅, and F₆, which was insignificant (p ≥ 0.05).

The structure and constituent color of the formulation are effective factors that influence the crumb color of bread (Bolarinwa etal.,²⁰¹⁹). Incorporation of goji berry powder was found to decrease the L* and b* indices and increase the a* index significantly (p < 0.05). The control sample with L* and WI values equal to 90.75 ± 0.02 and 70.74 ± 0.12, respectively, was the brightest sample. Composite breads containing goji berry powder are darker in color compared to control wheat bread, which is attributed to the beta‐carotene pigments of fruit. Among composite breads, those with 20% ww⁻¹ of goji berry powder (F₄) had the lowest L*, a*, and b* with values equal to 80.40 ± 0.02, 9.58 ± 0.02, and 21.06 ± 0.02, respectively. As can be seen from the specific volume data, the specific volume of bread samples increased to a level of 20% ww⁻¹ (F₄). This increase enhanced air bubbles and light scattering and ultimately led to a decrease in L* and an increase in opacity (Mohammadi etal.,²⁰²¹). Results also indicated that with an increase in the level of goji berry powder incorporation (F₅ and F₆), the L* index has decreased despite the decrease in specific volume. It seems that at a higher incorporation level of goji berry, the color is more determined by formulation constituents than structure, which is also confirmed by the a* parameter. The WI changes in bread crumbs indicate a decrease in whiteness due to the increase in incorporation of goji berry powder, which is claimed to be induced by the dominance of fruit color, as demonstrated by Koca and Anil(²⁰⁰⁷).

3.6. Sensory analysis

A sensory assessment of composite bread prepared with goji berry powder is shown in Figure4. According to the results obtained, at formulations containing goji berries higher than 20% ww⁻¹, a decrease was observed in sensory acceptance by the consumer. In other words, at higher goji berry powder incorporation levels, increased darkness, decreased specific volume, and increased hardness, lead to a reduction in sensory acceptance. Among the samples containing goji berry powder, sample F₄ was more preferred by consumers, with values equal to 8.92 ± 0.01 and 9.24 ± 0.03 for texture and overall acceptability, respectively, which has a significantly higher specific volume too. However, further incorporation of goji berry powder increases the amount of fiber in the formulation, which leads to the creation of a resinous structure with reduced specific volume and increased hardness, which reduces consumer satisfaction. The results showed that the overall acceptability had a good correlation with the specific volume.

The preferred perception for taste criteria is obtained by the F₃ sample with no significant difference from the F₄ sample (p ≥ 0.05). Due to the sour–sweet taste of goji berry fruit, adding it to wheat bread provides a pleasurable taste for consumers. Also, the sample with the highest amount of goji berry powder (F₆) had an unpleasant taste that was not acceptable to consumers. Due to the desirable texture characteristics, taste, and color, the sample containing 20% ww⁻¹ of goji berry powder (F₄) had the most acceptable sample in terms of sensory parameters among consumers. However, higher inclusion levels had adversely changed the color, flavor, texture, and consequently the overall acceptability. A drop in bakery product sensory quality at a high substitute level by the addition of different fruit‐fibers, namely goji berry by‐products, mango peel, jack fruit, white grape pomace, and apple fiber, was also observed in previous studies (Bora etal.,²⁰¹⁹; Feili etal.,²⁰¹⁶; Mildner‐Szkudlarz etal., ²⁰¹³; Pathak etal.,²⁰¹⁶; Purić etal.,²⁰²⁰).

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